CHAPTER 5: INTELLECTUAL GOLDEN AGES
CHAPTER 5: INTELLECTUAL GOLDEN AGES:
Key Points from this chapter:
The House of Wisdom was built in the 9th century and served as a global hub of knowledge
Sciences such as Maths, Physics, Medicine, Geography and more were developed by the Muslims
Calculations about celestial objects were made to near precision
The discoveries made in this era laid the foundation for modern sciences
As military expansion ceased in the Muslim World, the Muslims began to delve into science and from this came an intellectual golden age unseen in the history of the world. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad advanced many different sciences aside from just the classic religious ones. The summary of this chapter will be split into 5 sections. The first will look at the House of Wisdom and provide the reader with an understanding of what it was and how it propelled the study of science to a new level. The remaining sections will very briefly look at Muslim contributions to Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography, Medicine and Physics.
The author begins the chapter by saying “The ninth through thirteenth centuries in the Muslim world mark an era of scientific, religious, philosophical and cultural development the scale and depth of which had never been seen in world history before or since” (p75). Serving as the foundation for this era of advancement was the Bayt al-Hikmah or House of Wisdom. Built in the 9th century by Khalifah Al-Ma’mun, it was the largest library in the world and brought together scholars from all backgrounds including both Muslims and non-Muslims. Contrary to common knowledge, the House of Wisdom was not just a library but contained a university, schools, translation institutes and even research labs. It was unique to any educational establishment that existed before it in three ways. Firstly, “the expansive Muslim empire knocked down walls that had previously separated different groups”(p77). This allowed scholars from different regions to make the journey to Baghdad. Secondly, “Arabic became a lingua franca that could unite people from diverse backgrounds.” (p77). Thirdly, studying these sciences was seen as “an act of worship” (p78) so there was a lot of significance given to it by the government. It is therefore clear from this that the House of Wisdom played a significant role in facilitating scientific advancements as it brought scholars from all corners of not just the Muslim world but the entire world together.
The first science the author writes about is Mathematics. The Muslims developed this science first and it served as a foundation for the study of the other sciences. The Muslims, unlike other societies, did not simply see this as just another science but as a sacred one. This is because through understanding mathematics, a better understanding of physics and astronomy and more could be developed. This would then help to develop a “greater appreciation and love for God’s power” (p78). Among the most notable mathematicians was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi who was one of the first to work at the House of Wisdom. Realising the limitations of the Roman numeral system, he adopted the Indian numeral system. A key addition to the Indian numeral system he made was the number zero. His most famous work was the development of Algebra which was crucial to later works in Mathematics. Another great mathematician was Omar Khayyam who lived from 1048 to 1131. He is known for finding a method for solving cubic equations and some records suggest that he was the first to formulate the binomial theorem. The list of Muslim contributions to the study and development of Mathematics can go on but it is clear from this that their contribution was significant in advancing the study of the subject to where it is today.
Although the study of Mathematics and the development of certain ideas may seem irrelevant, it was crucial in developing the study of Astronomy. As a result, the Muslims began to develop a greater understanding of Astronomy with the Quran as a motivating factor. The author says “Muslims were the first to separate the science of astronomy from the guesswork and mythology of astrology” (p81). As they delved deeper into the study of the subject, they began to challenge Ptolemy’s idea of the earth being motionless. Al-Biruni was a leading figure in challenging these ideas. The author says “Eventually, as the Muslim ideas on astronomy disseminated throughout the continent, scientists such as Copernicus and Galileo would build upon them to come up with the theories that we accept as fact today” (p82). Another notable advancement was the further development of the astrolabe which helped its users to determine their precise location on the earth and was in use as the standard form of navigation until the 1700s. Furthermore, Muslim scholars began to make astronomical calculations of astounding accuracy. One such calculation was that the earth was 12,278 kilometres in diameter. This figure was a mere 37 kilometres from the correct value as we understand it today. Another calculation they made was that the earth’s circumference was 39,268 kilometres when in actuality it is 40,074 kilometres. These figures were incredibly close to the actual figures and show just how far the Muslim study of astronomy went.
The Muslims also began to develop the study of Geography by developing more detailed maps of the world. Among the scholars in this field was Muhammad Al Idrisi who developed an Atlas that wasn’t just a map but included information about different cultures, politics and societies. There are even several records claiming that the Muslims had travelled west of the Iberian Peninsula and into America. Mas’udi wrote about a group of Muslims who ventured west of the Iberian peninsula from the same port that Christopher Columbus sailed out of in 889. His map even shows an unknown land mass across the Atlantic Ocean. There is another account of this from al-Idrisi. Ibn Batuta also heard of a venture there by Mansa Abu Bakr. Although there is no definite proof, the fact they are recorded by scholars known for their insistence on accuracy coupled with proof of small Muslim communities found in journals of early explorers into the area suggests Muslims did indeed go there first.
Muslim physicians then began to make significant advancements in the study of Medicine. The Abbasid government introduced a licence which all doctors had to obtain before being allowed to treat patients. Among some of the most notable physicians was Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi who began to question the ideas of Galen who was an ancient Greek physician. He, along with many other physicians, believed the study of Medicine to be a sacred science and that doctors had been entrusted by God to treat others. He, therefore, was known for treating patients for free. Another Muslim physician of great renown was Ibn Sina who further promoted the use of rationality in medicine. He was one of the first to promote the use of experimental medicine and believed that medicine that had only been tried and tested under controlled conditions should be used and should not be used just based on theory. His book “The Canon of Medicine” was used by Europeans even in the 17th century whilst the Yuan dynasty also had it translated into Chinese for their use. He was also one of the first to write about a connection between mental illnesses and physical illnesses. The Muslims in the early 9th century also began to build hospitals to allow for free or affordable health care for the poor. They were first established in Baghdad and began to spread across the rest of the Muslim world – bearing strikingly similar resemblances to modern hospitals.
The last science the author mentions is the study of Physics in which the Muslims too made astounding advancements. He says “Their work helped lay the foundation that giants such as Newton and Einstein built upon.” (p90). One of the most notable scholars in the field of physics was Ibn Al Haytham who began to study light and how it works. He “argued that light was composed of rays, which travelled in straight lines.” (p91). He also compiled a book called ‘the book of Optics’. In addition to this, he developed something called the camera obscura which served as the foundation for the first cameras to be built. Furthermore, he brought together the fields of astronomy and optics and came up with a calculation to work out the depth of the atmosphere. After the Soviets and the United States ventured to space, they verified that his calculations were not far off. Ibn Al Haytham authored over 200 books and “pioneered work in magnifying lenses, the laws of motion, analytical geometry, calculus, astronomy, and even experimental psychology.” (p92). His emphasis on using observation and experimentation helped to develop what we call today ‘the scientific method’. The scientific discoveries were not limited to him only. Following his death and by the 13th century, “Crankshafts, water pumps, eyeglasses, compasses, gliders, drinking glasses and even water-powered robots all appeared in the Muslim world” (p93).
In conclusion, the Muslims contributed significantly to the advancement of science and the discoveries made in 9tt-11th century Baghdad; They laid the groundwork for modern science. Perhaps this rapid development can be owed to the fact that the Muslims saw these sciences as sacred and something that helped to improve their relationship with their Creator. This gave them a passion and enthusiasm, unlike any other group of scholars. The author concludes the chapter by saying “Through the advanced study of the sciences, a technological revolution occurred in the Muslim world.” (p93)