CHAPTER 6: DECLINE OF THEOLOGY AND THE RISE OF HELENISTIC PHILOSOPHY
CHAPTER 6: DECLINE OF THEOLOGY AND ASCENDENCY OF HELLENISTIC PHILOSOPHY
As the years passed, the Ash’ari scholars grew complacent and only transmitted what they had learned as opposed to developing it. Consequently, theology declined, and the people turned to something new – Hellenistic philosophy, which was Islam’s next major intellectual confrontation. The summary of this chapter will be split into two sections:
1. Rise of Hellenistic philosophy
2. Emergence of The Bātinis
As scholars from all over the world gathered in Baghdad, foreign subjects increasingly mixed with Islamic Academia. Among the works that were translated from the Western world was that of Greek Philosopher, Aristotle. Lacking the linguistic skills to translate his works themselves, the Muslims and Arabs relied on inaccurate translations by others. These translations simply coloured Greek mythology with sophisticated words and passed it off as philosophy. The Muslims, due to these inaccurate translations, were unable to engage with Aristotle’s works properly. As a result, they “ascribed to Aristotle such an infallible status in piety, moral excellence, knowledge, and wisdom as perhaps cannot be even claimed by the First Cause itself.” They accepted his ideas without any critical engagement.
Hellenistic philosophy began to permeate in educational institutes, leading to the rise of the Brethren of Purity or Ikhwan al-Safa. They believed that the Shari’ah had become “polluted by ignorance and perversion of truth” (p107) and only “a synthesis of Greek philosophy and the Shari’a of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) can provide perfection.’ Operating as a clandestine society, they largely targeted the youth and within 100 years, their ideas had spread to Andalusia. The dangers of the use of Hellenistic philosophy are seen in the distinction made by the author between the Mu’tazila and those who used philosophy. The Mu’tazila still believed and feared Allah (SWT) – adhering strictly to the commandments from the Quran and Shari’ah. Although they had deviant beliefs, according to the author, they never gave up on Islam outright. In contrast, those who used Hellenistic philosophy made it a rival to revelation, believing that philosophy alone could allow one to attain knowledge of Allah (SWT) in the fullness of His essence. Philosophy, in extent, had become infallible according to the author, leading to a decline in respect for religion and prophets.
The rise of Hellenistic philosophy in the Muslim World led to the development of one of the most heretic groups and one of Islam’s greatest threats – The Bātinis. This group was “openly antagonistic to religion and took pride in rejecting the tenets of Islam” (p108). They primarily consisted of men who had lost their kingdoms or sought to rise to power but could not do so due to the framework established by the Shari’ah; Their motivations were primarily political. Being aware of the previous attempts made by heretical groups such as the Mu’tazila “would ignite a frenzy of enthusiasm among the Muslims in defence of Islam, they chose an entirely novel approach to undermining Islam.” (p109). The Bātinis attempted to change the way the Quran was interpreted. Traditionally, the understanding of certain terms in the Quran such as ‘Risālah (Prophethood) or Jannah (Heaven) cannot be understood independently of the way the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and early generations understood it. The Bātinis changed this and promoted a more mystic and hidden meaning to these terms. The author lists many examples. One of them being Salāt, which originally meant prayer, was now changed to obeying the leader of the time. Although their ideas may seem absurd, decades of intellectual squabbling led to confusion amongst the masses and so the Bātinis grew in popularity.
Despite their intellectual facade, the Bātinis were fundamentally driven by political ambitions They “created a secret yet highly efficient instrument of power that was a cause for concern.” (p112). The group assassinated many of their political opponents including the vizier of the Great Seljuk Empire Nizam al-Mulk. The threat grew so severe that “Ibn al-Jawzi reported that in Isfahan if anyone did not return to his house before nightfall, it was presumed that he had been killed by the Bātinis” (p112). The Muslim world endured the terror sown by the Bātinis for many decades, as their campaign of political violence destabilized regions and instilled fear across communities.
It is clear the ascendency of Hellenistic philosophy posed a grave threat to both the intellectual and political world of Islam. The Muslim world needed another saviour – a man with sound intellect, unflinching faith and a zeal to defend orthodox Islam. Such a man rose in the 11th century and his name was Imam Abu Hamid al-Ghazāli.